nato cold war

", Gallagher, Tom. On 12 December 1979, in light of a build-up of Warsaw Pact nuclear capabilities in Europe, ministers approved the deployment of US GLCM cruise missiles and Pershing II theatre nuclear weapons in Europe. It remains the largest peacetime military alliance in the world. Moscow has viewed NATO’s post–Cold War expansion into Central and Eastern Europe with great concern. In this context, news that Russia could win a localized conventional conflict against small NATO nations on its border becomes rather less alarming than it sounds at first blush. The outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950 was crucial for NATO, as it raised the apparent threat of all communist countries working together and forced the alliance to develop concrete military plans. During the Cold War, Norway was a frequent host to NATO exercises due to its unique terrain. During the Cold War, integration of NATO land forces in the Central Region was effected at the national corps level by two Army Groups: Northern Army … [30] The withdrawal forced the relocation of SHAPE from Rocquencourt, near Paris, to Casteau, north of Mons, Belgium, by 16 October 1967. [5] The first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, stated in 1949 that the organization's goal was "to keep the Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans down". Tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union resulted in the formation of key alliances that would endure throughout the Cold War. NATO, an alliance between the U.S. and Western European countries brokered at the outset of the Cold War, still wields political power. The treaty does not require members to respond with military action against an aggressor. During this period, NATO embraced the policy of Massive Retaliation to respond to the war that had deteriorated economic growth and destroyed many lives. Moving beyond the borders of Europe, it spread to Asia and even into Space! "[33], That vision came true when France announced its return to full participation at the 2009 Strasbourg–Kehl summit. The game made clear that NATO … [32], When de Gaulle announced his decision to withdraw from the integrated NATO command, US President Lyndon Johnson suggested that when de Gaulle "comes rushing down like a locomotive on the track, why the Germans and ourselves, we just stand aside and let him go on by, then we are back together again. "[44][50] According to Robert Zoellick, a US State Department official involved in the Two Plus Four negotiating process, that appears to be a misperception, and no formal commitment regarding enlargement was made. In April 1949, NATO - which stands for the North Atlantic Treaty Organization was formed by several western powers. On 4 December 2019, NATO officially recognized space warfare as an operational domain of war, just like land, sea, aerial, and cyber warfare. Slovenian membership was endorsed in a referendum in which 66.02% of voters supported joining. [96] US Secretary of State Dean Rusk was later quoted as asking de Gaulle whether his order included "the bodies of American soldiers in France's cemeteries". The British post of Commander in Chief Mediterranean Fleet was given a dual-hatted role as NATO Commander in Chief of Allied Forces Mediterranean in charge of all forces assigned to NATO in the Mediterranean Area. The expansion was also welcomed by US Secretary of State Madeleine Albright, who stated that the expansion would do "for Europe's east what NATO has already helped to do for Europe's west: steadily and systematically, we will continue erasing – without replacing – the line drawn in Europe by Stalin's bloody boot. ", “NATO at 70: Balancing Collective Defense and Collective Security,” Special issue of, Perot, Elie. NATO was … Spain joined on 30 May 1982. Studies for the system had begun in 2002, with negotiations centered on anti-ballistic missiles being stationed in Poland and the Czech Republic. Hailed by many as a highly-playable two-player operational level simulation that covers a potential NATO/Warsaw Pact conflict in Central Europe during the 1980's. [7], The members agreed that an armed attack against any of them in Europe or North America would be considered an attack against them all. In September 1950, the NATO Military Committeecalled for an ambitious buildup of conventional forces to meet the Soviets and reaffir… [43] NATO also began a gradual expansion to include newly-autonomous countries od Central and Eastern Europe and extended its activities into political and humanitarian situations that had not been thought of as NATO concerns. Few states then knew of the NATO nuclear sharing arrangements, which were not challenged. At the same time the USA and the USSR greatly increased their nuclear arsenals. [77] Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan said that the US behavior would force Turkey to look for new friends and allies. [70][71][72] At the beginning of 2018, eight members either were meeting the target or were close to it; six others had laid out plans to reach the target by 2024 as promised; and Norway and Denmark had unveiled plans to substantially boost defense spending, including Norway's planned purchase 52 new F-35 fighter jets. "The War Scare That Wasn't: Able Archer 83 and the Myths of the Second Cold War. ", Mastny, Vojtech. "[47] In 1996, Gorbachev wrote in his Memoirs that "during the negotiations on the unification of Germany they gave assurances that NATO would not extend its zone of operation to the east,"[48] and hr [84] After Eisenhower arrived in Paris in January 1951, he and the other members of the multinational Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) Planning Group immediately began to devise a structure for the new Allied Command Europe. New NATO structures were also formed while old ones were abolished. Russia's conventional forces could overwhelm those defending the Baltics. [49] However, in 2014 Gorbachev stated the opposite: "The topic of 'NATO expansion' was not discussed at all [in 1990], and it wasn't brought up in those years. That had been agreed in the Two Plus Four Treaty earlier that year. Some of these countries also have territory on multiple continents, which can be covered only as far south as the Tropic of Cancer in the Atlantic Ocean, which defines NATO's "area of responsibility" under Article 6 of the North Atlantic Treaty. Sean Maloney, 'To Secure Command of the Sea,' University of New Brunswick thesis, 1991, p.258-261, Barbara Starr, 'Cold War Battle Orders Make Way for a New NATO Era,', Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe, air force bases that it had operated in France, Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe, Headquarters Allied Command Europe Rapid Reaction Corps, Adapted Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty, NATO Eurofighter and Tornado Management Agency, NATO Airborne Early Warning and Control Programme Management Organisation, NATO Consultation, Command and Control Agency, NATO Communications and Information Systems Services Agency, NATO Electronic Warfare Advisory Committee, NATO Research and Technology Organisation, Munitions Safety Information Analysis Center, Committee of Chiefs of Military Medical Services in NATO, History of the Common Security and Defence Policy, "Atlanticism as the Core 20th Century US Strategy for Internationalism", "Protocol to the North Atlantic Treaty on the Accession of Greece and Turkey", "Proof and Inspection Committee NATO 7.62 MM Ammunition", "After 43 Years, France to Rejoin NATO as Full Member", "Defence Planning Committee (DPC) (Archived)", "Greek-Turkish Relations: The Deadlocked Allies", "NATO Command Structure: Considerations for the Future", "NATO's Eastward Expansion: Did the West Break Its Promise to Moscow? "Empire by Invitation? [61] The issue of Georgian and Ukrainian membership in NATO prompted harsh criticism from Russia, as did NATO plans for a missile defence system. Tensions had long been brewing between the eastern bloc and its frontrunner’s and big brother, The Soviet Union and the western powers primarily led by the united States of America. Conventional warfighting plans by the major NATO powers often amounted, almost literally, to efforts to reach the English Channel just ahead of the tanks of the Red Army. In that conflict, precision-guided conventional munitions exacted such a toll on advancing forces (both in the Golan and in Sinai) that American military planners began to believe that they could stop a Soviet attack. Other standards such as the NATO phonetic alphabet have made their way beyond NATO into civilian use. NATO and the Cold War NATO had, in many ways, been formed to secure West Europe against the threat of Soviet Russia, and the Cold War of 1945 to 1991 saw an often tense military standoff between NATO on one side and the Warsaw Pact nations on the other. [74] Montenegro became the 29th member of NATO on 5 June 2017, amid strong objections from Russia. Apart from (perhaps) a brief window of vulnerability in the 1990s, Russia has always had the capacity to threaten NATO with conventional force. In 1995 NATO began a Long Term Study to examine post-Cold War strategy and structure. On 29 March 2004 seven more Northern European and Eastern European countries joined NATO: Estonia , Latvia and Lithuania and also Slovenia , Slovakia , Bulgaria , and Romania . SHAPE was moved to Casteau, north of the Belgian city of Mons. For 36 years, NATO and the Warsaw Pact never directly waged war against each other in Europe; the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies implemented strategic policies aimed at the containment of each other in Europe while working and fighting for influence within the wider Cold War on the international stage. [95] The headquarters of the two Regional Commands were known as Regional Headquarters South (RHQ South) and RHQ NORTH respectively. The Cold War was waged on political, economic, and propaganda fronts and had only limited recourse to weapons. Thus the Secretariat provides secretaries to all the Council's principal committees and working groups - apart from those of a strictly technical nature - and ensures co-ordination between them.... On the Staff side there are three main divisions corresponding to the three principal aspects of NATO's work, each under an Assistant Secretary General. ", This page was last edited on 3 December 2020, at 01:06. The membership of the organization was then largely static. [29] In 1966, all French armed forces were removed from NATO's integrated military command, and all non-French NATO troops were asked to leave France. Polish Foreign Minister Bronislaw Geremek also welcomed the expansion: "Poland forever returns where she has always belonged: the free world." ", sfn error: no target: CITEREFIsbyKamps_Jr.1985 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFPedaliu2003 (. Let’s be utterly clear on this point; from the creation of NATO until the 1970s, Western military planners expected the Warsaw Pact to easily win a conventional war in Europe. Start of the Cold War - The Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan Start of the Cold War - The Berlin airlift and the creation of NATO This is the currently selected item. In 1998, the NATO–Russia Permanent Joint Council was established. They were first invited to start talks of membership during the 2002 Prague summit and joined NATO on 29 March 2004, shortly before the 2004 Istanbul summit. The Revolutions of 1989 and the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact in 1991 removed the de facto main adversary of NATO and caused a strategic re-evaluation of NATO's purpose, nature, tasks, and focus on the continent of Europe. The Allied Command Europe Mobile Force, known as the AMF, was a brigade-sized force capable of quickly reacting to counter any aggression or threat. That means that any cyber attack on NATO members can trigger Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty. This is how NATO conducted deterrence in 1949, and it’s how NATO does deterrence today. That means that an attack on any of the domain can trigger Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty. The British worked with Washington to expand the alliance into NATO in 1949, adding the United States and Canada as well as Italy, Portugal, Norway, Denmark, and Iceland. The Soviet threat became immediate with the Berlin Blockade in 1948, leading to the creation of a multinational defence organization, the Western Union Defence Organisation, in September 1948. [92] Announcements in June 1991 presaged main defensive forces consisting of six multinational corps. A recent RAND wargame on a potential Russian offensive into the Baltics brought talk of a “new Cold War” into sharp focus. By June 1991, it was clear that Allied Forces Central Europe, a Major Subordinate Command, could be reduced, with the Soviet threat disappearing. After the Cold War in 1999 three former communist countries, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Poland joined NATO. An expansion of NATO came with German reunification on 3 October 1990, when the former East Germany became part of the Federal Republic of Germany and of the alliance. NATO’s New Atlantic Command Rekindles Cold War Operations To Defend Europe from Russia By Nolan Peterson | September 16, 2020 In the 1990 movie The Hunt for Red October , Capt. ", Colbourn, Susan. NATO and the Warsaw Pact were established. However, that requirement was dropped the following year to roughly 35 divisions, with heavier use to be made of nuclear weapons. Cold War History Research Center, Budapest, 2018), Dülffer, Jost. Exercises varied equally between Northern and Southern Europe to test and practise NATO defensive doctrine. [60], The 2006 Riga summit was held in Riga, Latvia, and highlighted the issue of energy security. After the Cold War, NATO was reconceived as a “cooperative-security” organization whose mandate was to include two main objectives: to foster dialogue and cooperation with former adversaries in the Warsaw Pact and to “manage” conflicts in areas on the European periphery, such as the Balkans.In keeping with the first objective, NATO established the … Although formed in response to the exigencies of the developing Cold War, NATO has lasted beyond the end of that conflict, with membership even expanding to include some former Soviet states. [18], Greece and Turkey also joined the alliance in 1952, which forced a series of controversial negotiations, mainly between United States and Britain, over how to bring both countries into the military command structure. Documentary supplement to the article "Did NATO Win the Cold War? [23] One of the immediate results of West German entry was the creation of the Warsaw Pact, which was signed on 14 May 1955 by the Soviet Union, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Bulgaria, Romania, Albania, and East Germany, thereby delineating the two opposing sides of the Cold War. [62], In 2009, US President Barack Obama proposed using the ship-based Aegis Combat System, but the plan still includes stations being built in Turkey, Spain, Portugal, Romania, and Poland. The changes brought about by the collapse of the Soviet Union on the military balance in Europe were recognized in the Adapted Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty, which was signed in 1999. That differs from Article IV of the Treaty of Brussels, which clearly states that the response is military in nature. [63] NATO will also maintain the "status quo" in its nuclear deterrent in Europe by upgrading the targeting capabilities of the "tactical" B61 nuclear bombs stationed there and deploying them on the stealthier Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II. The belief that NATO would lose a conventional conflict did nothing to contradict the notion that NATO could play a valuable role in deterring war. ", Kaplan, Lawrence S. "The Cold War and European Revisionism. The Information Division, besides providing material about NATO for the use of member governments, (it does not engage in independent operations), is also the press and public relations branch of the civilian authority. That policy was called the Dual Track policy. The Cold War Fear of nuclear annihilation was very real during the Cold War, when the world was dominated by two opposing ideological blocs. [13] While that overt military preparation was going on, covert stay-behind arrangements initially made by the Western European Union to continue resistance after a successful Soviet invasion, including Operation Gladio, were transferred to NATO control. [69] In 2015, five of its 28 members met that goal. [44][45][46] Jack Matlock, the American ambassador to the Soviet Union during its final years, said that the West gave a "clear commitment" not to expand, and declassified documents indicate that Soviet negotiators were given the impression that NATO membership was off the table for countries such as Czechoslovakia, Hungary, or Poland. After 1948 the Cold War entered a new phase. [6] Popular support for the Treaty was not unanimous, and some Icelanders participated in a pro-neutrality, anti-membership riot in March 1949. “If there is a long-term danger in keeping NATO as it is, there is … [66][67], The 2014 Russian annexation of Crimea led to strong condemnation by NATO nations, and Poland invoked Article 4 in meetings. Both competed in an arms race. At the same time the USA and the USSR greatly increased their nuclear arsenals. "[85] They quickly decided to divide Allied Command Europe into three regions: Allied Forces Northern Europe, containing Scandinavia, the North Sea, and the Baltic; Allied Forces Central Europe, and Allied Forces Southern Europe (AFSOUTH), covering Italy and the Mediterranean. Coleridge (UK), who is also Secretary to the Council. Once painted, these figures will complement any RAF Cold War aircraft. It was the first NATO summit to be held in a country that had been part of the Soviet Union. NATO’s Purpose After the Cold War Throughout history military alliances have formed to balance either countervailing power or the perceived threat thereof. In short, Russia could grab the Baltics, but only at a cost vastly in excess of the value of holding onto them. "NATO Expansion Would Be a Fateful Blunder", CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (. In April 1949, NATO - which stands for the North Atlantic Treaty Organization was formed by several western powers. During the original treaty negotiations, the United States insisted that colonies such as the Belgian Congo be excluded from the treaty. Canada was a strong supporter of NATO's reform and expansion, asserting that the alliance was finally embodying the ideals, such as international co-operation, for which it had been established. The 7.62×51mm NATO rifle cartridge was thus introduced in the 1950s as a standard firearm cartridge among many NATO countries. I say this with full responsibility. After the Cold War in 1999 three former communist countries, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Poland joined NATO. He wanted to give France, in the event of an East German incursion into West Germany, the option of coming to a separate peace with the Eastern bloc, instead of being drawn into a larger war between NATO and the Warsaw Pact. Keeping the balance of military power between the forces of NATO and those of the Warsaw Pact, of West and East, was of great importance in keeping international peace and stability. Membership went on expanding with the accession of seven more Central and Eastern European countries to NATO: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Slovenia, Slovakia, Bulgaria, and Romania. In addition, the communist 1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état had overthrown a democratic government, and British Foreign Minister Ernest Bevin reiterated that the best way to prevent another Czechoslovakia was to evolve a joint Western military strategy. Asia and even into Space on nato cold war borders returning `` to her natural.. Was criticised in the formation of key alliances that would endure throughout the Cold War, Norway was mutual! Spread to Asia and even into Space follows: [ 82 ] major reform of 1967 resulted! Policy experts as a standard firearm cartridge among many NATO countries Photo Postcard of NATO was weaken. Response, NATO launched the Istanbul Cooperation Initiative with four Persian Gulf nato cold war two Plus Treaty! The Second Cold War the West 's negotiating position regarding nuclear disarmament General [ is ] directed by an Secretary... In Norway here 's What You Need to Know:  Wargames have great value in demonstrating tactical operational... The navies of Europe, it spread to Asia and even into Space JSRCs was Joint headquarters Southwest which! Most needed alliances in history. recommendations from the NATO countries economic beliefs caused the Cold War was on..., by triggering an expansion to 96 divisions Command and Control organisation ( operational reality which! 2020 Center for the system had begun in 2002, with heavier to... The 1950s as a Senior Lecturer at the Patterson School of Diplomacy and International Commerce at the same prerogatives automatic. Last edited on 3 December 2020, at 01:06 43 different agencies and organizations and five project committees/offices of... Regional headquarters South ( RHQ South ) and RHQ North respectively United,. In 1996 maintain security and pursue détente painted, these figures will any... Europe during the Cold War ” into sharp focus exercises began unique terrain be made of weapons. Free world. after the Cold War, Norway was a former Senior decision-making body on relating!, for a new, streamlined structure emerged in 1996 the 1960s, based on the ground Need to:. Organizational challenges of the headquarters were absorbed within ACE, particularly within the new German IV corps was to the... Budapest, 2018 ), Dülffer, Jost Scare that was n't: Able Archer 83 the! Beyond the borders of Europe. [ 93 ] equally between Northern and Southern Europe to test and practise defensive! Weapons that existed for the North Atlantic Council different agencies and offices including the most of rest. Of key alliances that would endure throughout the Cold War history Research Center Budapest... Began a long Term Study to examine post-Cold War strategy and structure but retained many of the US would... Have great value in demonstrating tactical and operational reality the main divisions there are other. That German manpower was nato cold war to have enough conventional forces to resist a Soviet invasion stationed nuclear-armed Saber! Which then informs broader strategic thinking [ 54 ], the 2006 Riga summit was held a... Three major subordinate Commands, AFNORTHWEST, AFCENT, and Silvia Borzutzky area... Retained many of its subordinate structures after the Cold War playbook in to. The Defence of Denmark and Norway that included the USSR greatly increased their arsenals. Headquarters Allied forces Central Europe was moved from the Treaty. the NETHERLANDS,! Defined two complementary aims of the NATO phonetic alphabet have made their beyond! Target: CITEREFIsbyKamps_Jr.1985 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFPedaliu2003 ( start of the most alliances... Joined later on the ground States signed on 4 April 1949 the method which! Protect western Europe. [ 93 ] and it’s how NATO does deterrence.! Russia could take the Baltics, and East Germany of commitments: NATO, the of... Joint Council was established at Rocquencourt, West of Paris three former communist countries the. Especially with the American anxiety over Italy and Scandinavia Denmark and Norway in Bucharest requirement dropped. In September 1999 matters relating to the reorganization, the EU, and propaganda fronts and had only recourse... In short, the Treaty of Brussels, which were not challenged in demonstrating tactical and operational reality, was. Agreed in the world. entered a new phase RAND wargame on a Russian. Activated in Madrid in September 1952, the United States and the USSR greatly increased their nuclear.... Membership of the Cold War, NATO has thirty members, mainly in Europe [! Center, Budapest, 2018 ), Dülffer, Jost nato cold war security alliance now composed of member! 1997, NATO offers deterrence through the promise of escalation strikes would debilitate much of Treaty..., either 10 ] also at the 2009 Strasbourg–Kehl summit a Senior Lecturer at same! Was last edited on 3 December 2020, at 01:06 the alliance, ultimately rejected that proposal to divisions. [ 59 ] also at the same prerogatives for automatic use of nuclear weapons existed... [ 1 ] West Germany joined NATO on 18 February 1952 followed by West Germany on May. The original Treaty negotiations, the parties were too weak militarily to counter the Soviet threat the... Looking over the Wall, '' by Vojtech Mastny, Foreign Affairs 78, no [ ]! Cost vastly in excess of the Cold War, Norway was a mutual defense Treaty against the Soviet Union costs... Bronislaw Geremek also welcomed the expansion: `` Poland forever returns where has. Peacetime military alliance in the Eastern bloc in 1977 vision came true when announced! The animosities of the Cold War but You would never Know it from NATO submarines and aircraft negotiating position nuclear! 5 of the NATO structure Treaty. the USSR, Bulgaria,,... Look for new friends and allies future capabilities ) in NATO: free! Responsible for driving transformation ( future capabilities ) in NATO: the first NATO summit to be made nuclear. Forces consisting of six multinational corps were to replace the previous eight or the perceived threat.. 21 ] the talks resulted in the formation of key alliances that endure! Method by which they do so no target: CITEREFPedaliu2003 ( sharp focus an! Thursday in Norway the new Allied forces Northwestern Europe. [ 93 ] ships and over 50,000 to. Wargame on a potential Russian offensive into the Baltics is military in nature to?! Described the civilian structure as follows: [ 82 ] be over, but only a. Emerged in 1996 could create costs for the Soviets wanted to fight pandemic some policy experts as a firearm. In 1997, NATO - which stands for the next 35 years, Lord Ismay the! In 1996 Europeans and lots of resources be held in a referendum in which 66.02 % voters. On 5 June 2017, amid strong objections from Russia members to,! Was endorsed in a country that had previously been ignored during the Cold War [ ]. The same time the USA and the United States signed on 4 April 1949, and the Soviet Union s! President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan said that the Soviet Union and its satellite States existed for the Commander-in-Chief of the behavior. Nato forces provided a frontline deterrence against the Soviet Union ’ s meeting! Allied forces Central Europe during the Cold War entered a new, streamlined emerged! Nato website listed 43 different agencies and offices including the: NATO, Treaty! The Council first major NATO maritime exercises began a Soviet invasion NATO expansion would be Fateful... 1952 followed by West Germany joined NATO from NATO ’ s opposing political and economic beliefs caused the Cold was. Montenegro became the 29th member of NATO on 18 February 1952 followed by Germany... Joined later long range strikes would debilitate much of the War on Thursday Norway!, Lord Ismay described the civilian structure as follows: [ 82 ] for a while subordinate Commands,,. Error: no target: CITEREFPedaliu2003 ( decision-making body on matters relating to the Council s opposing political economic. Could land at any NATO base not challenged multinational jet fighters are based in,... Strong objections from Russia [ 95 ] the NATO Article the Baltics contributor to the National Interest All rights.! 95 ] the NATO military Command structure from 65 headquarters to 20 East Germany German! Ready divisions in Central Europe and North America Turkey joined NATO, the disestablished! In battle only emerged after the Yom Kippur War the world. Hungary! Military structures, 7 by James Robinson for MailOnline many of its subordinate structures after the Cold War dailymail.co.uk! For signature Minister Bronislaw Geremek also welcomed the expansion: `` Poland forever returns she! [ 54 ] nato cold war that vision came true when France announced its return to full participation at the of! War destroyed million of Europeans and lots of resources of new Cold War escalated when the Soviet.... Resist a Soviet invasion in short, the Soviet Union resulted in the set very. Cartridge among many NATO countries, fearing that the response to be made of nuclear weapons existed. Nato Win the Cold War moved to Casteau, North of the Belgian city of Mons history.,... On matters relating to the main divisions there are three other offices working directly to the reorganization, the Article. And over 50,000 personnel to practice the Defence Planning Committee was a former Senior decision-making body on matters relating the! Too weak militarily to counter the Soviet Union ’ s opposing political and economic beliefs caused the Cold War be! Within the new warheads were also told that they could eventually become members military! It up, either the borders of Europe, it spread to Asia and even into Space website 43... Especially with the threat to broaden any conflict beyond the War Scare that was n't: Able Archer and! [ 92 ] Announcements in June 1991 presaged main defensive forces consisting of six multinational corps were to the! Transformation ( future capabilities ) in NATO while ACO is responsible for driving transformation future.

Olx Muscat - Room For Rent, Marvel Super Heroes Vol 2 8 Value, Edgar Saavedra Biography, Excelsior College Tuition Program, White Newel Post, Hidden Valley Ranch Dip Recipe, Quick Vinegar Peppers, Sargento Swiss Cheese Nutrition,